Landscape Types
The natural substrate – where L1's planetary systems meet human activity
Landscapes sit at the scale where corporate action can create systemic change. Understanding the ecological hierarchy helps you see where outcomes actually happen.
In 30 Seconds
The biosphere contains biomes (continental ecosystem types), which contain ecoregions (biogeographic areas), which contain landscapes (100K–1M+ hectares where action happens).
Why landscapes? Too small (individual projects) and you can't address systemic drivers. Too large (biomes) and you can't coordinate stakeholders. Landscapes are the sweet spot for corporate action – big enough to matter, small enough to manage.
The Ecological Hierarchy
This hierarchy connects L1's planetary boundaries to the specific places where sustainability outcomes occur. Each level nests within the one above.
Understanding where landscapes sit in this hierarchy clarifies what action is possible at each scale – and why landscape-level intervention is the corporate action sweet spot.
From Biosphere to Habitat
BIOSPHERE
Global – all life on Earth
L1: Planetary Foundations
BIOME
Continental – climate-determined ecosystem types
e.g. Tropical rainforest, Savanna, Temperate grassland, Tundra, Boreal forest
ECOREGION
Regional – millions of hectares, distinct biogeography
e.g. Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, Cerrado, Great Barrier Reef, Sundarbans
LANDSCAPE
100,000 – 1,000,000+ hectares
The corporate action sweet spot
e.g. Flow Country (UK), Mau Forest (Kenya), Central Kalimantan, Cocoa Belt (Ghana)
ECOSYSTEM
Variable – functional ecological units
e.g. Montane forest, Riparian zone, Peatland bog, Coral reef, Mangrove stand
HABITAT
Local – species-specific environments
e.g. Forest canopy, Stream edge, Mangrove roots, Grassland burrow
Key Definitions
Biome
Large-scale ecosystem type determined by climate. Defined by dominant vegetation and adapted organisms. The world has ~14 major terrestrial biomes.
Scale: Continental/global. Who works here: Climate scientists, planetary boundary researchers (IPCC, Stockholm Resilience Centre).
Ecoregion
A biogeographic area with distinct species, communities, and environmental conditions. WWF identifies 867 terrestrial ecoregions globally. Often spans multiple countries.
Scale: Millions of hectares. Who works here: Conservation planners, WWF, IUCN (Global 200 priority ecoregions).
Landscape
A socio-ecological system combining natural and human-modified ecosystems, influenced by ecological, economic, and socio-cultural processes. The unit where multi-stakeholder coordination happens.
Scale: 100K–1M+ ha. Who works here: Multi-stakeholder coalitions, corporates, jurisdictional programmes (ISEAL, LandScale, SBTN).
Ecosystem
A functional unit where living organisms interact with their physical environment. Defined by ecological processes, not administrative boundaries. Can be nested within landscapes.
Scale: Variable (hectares to thousands). Who works here: Site managers, project developers, restoration practitioners.
Why Landscape Scale Matters
Too Small: Projects
Individual farms or project sites can't address systemic drivers. Protecting one forest while the neighbouring forest is cleared doesn't solve the problem. Leakage undermines impact.
Just Right: Landscapes
Big enough to influence land use planning, align multiple actors, and create measurable change. Small enough to coordinate stakeholders and connect to specific places with specific communities.
Too Large: Biomes
Continental-scale biomes span too many jurisdictions, stakeholders, and contexts to coordinate effectively. Science happens at this scale, but corporate action needs a tighter focus.
The insight: Landscapes are where the physical meets the political. Specific geographies where ecosystems, communities, and economies intersect. The places where environmental outcomes actually happen – and where corporate commitments become real.
The Five Landscape Types
Different landscape types face different pressures, support different ecosystems, and require different intervention approaches. Understanding the type helps target action effectively.
Forest Landscapes
comingTropical, temperate, and boreal forests. The world's largest terrestrial carbon stores and biodiversity reservoirs. Face pressures from agriculture, logging, and infrastructure.
- • Examples: Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, Indonesian lowland forests
- • Key issues: Deforestation, degradation, fire, EUDR compliance
- • Commodities: Soy, palm oil, beef, timber, cocoa, coffee
Coastal & Marine
comingMangroves, seagrass beds, coral reefs, and coastal wetlands. Critical for blue carbon, fisheries, and coastal protection. Often overlooked in corporate sustainability strategies.
- • Examples: Sundarbans, Great Barrier Reef, Mesoamerican Reef
- • Key issues: Habitat loss, ocean acidification, overfishing, pollution
- • Commodities: Seafood, aquaculture, tourism, shipping
Freshwater Wetlands
comingRivers, lakes, marshes, swamps, and floodplains. Critical for water cycles, biodiversity (40% of species), and flood control. Often degraded by upstream land use and infrastructure.
- • Examples: Pantanal, Okavango Delta, Mekong floodplains, Great Lakes
- • Key issues: Pollution, damming, drainage, invasive species, water extraction
- • Commodities: Freshwater fisheries, rice, irrigation-dependent agriculture
Peatlands
comingBogs, fens, and peat swamp forests. Hold 30% of soil carbon on just 3% of land. Tropical and boreal peatlands face drainage, fire, and conversion. Rewetting is a key restoration approach.
- • Examples: Flow Country (UK), Indonesian peatlands, Congo peatlands
- • Key issues: Drainage, fire, subsidence, irreversible carbon loss
- • Commodities: Palm oil, pulp & paper, agriculture
Grasslands & Savannas
comingCerrado-type conversion frontiers and rangeland systems. Often undervalued compared to forests but critical for biodiversity, soil carbon, and water cycles. Major agricultural expansion zones.
- • Examples: Brazilian Cerrado, African savannas, North American prairies
- • Key issues: Conversion, overgrazing, fire regime changes
- • Commodities: Soy, beef, cotton, biofuels
Cross-Cutting Concepts
Ecological vs Political Boundaries
Landscapes can be defined by ecological features (watersheds, ecosystem boundaries) or political/administrative boundaries (districts, provinces). Landscape approaches typically use ecological boundaries; jurisdictional approaches align with political ones. Most real-world initiatives blend both.
Nested Geography
Landscapes nest within ecoregions, which nest within biomes. This matters for REDD+ nesting (project credits within jurisdictional accounting), supply chain traceability (farm → landscape → region), and target-setting (site-level action contributing to landscape-level outcomes).
MRV at Landscape Scale
Measurement, Reporting, and Verification works differently at landscape scale. Remote sensing covers large areas; ground-truth sampling validates; community monitoring adds local data. LandScale and similar frameworks provide assessment structure. See MRV Systems.
Connectivity & Corridors
Landscapes aren't islands. Ecological connectivity between landscapes (wildlife corridors, river systems, migration routes) matters for biodiversity outcomes. Landscape-level action should consider connections to adjacent landscapes and broader ecoregional context.
The Pandion View
Landscape types aren't just categories – they're the foundation for understanding where sustainability outcomes happen. Different landscape types face different pressures and require different interventions.
The ecological hierarchy provides the bridge from L1's planetary science to L2's geography of action. Understanding where landscapes sit in this hierarchy – and which type of landscape you're working in – is foundational for credible sustainability strategy.
As landscape type pages are built, each will cover the specific pressures, key actors, intervention approaches, and corporate engagement pathways relevant to that type. The cross-cutting concepts above apply across all types.